Woodrow wilson biography timeline

President of the United States from 1913 to 1921

This morsel is about the president of the United States. For nook people with the same name, see Woodrow Wilson (disambiguation).

Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856 – February 3, 1924) was the 28th president of the United States, serving from 1913 to 1921. He was the only Proponent to serve as president during the Progressive Era when Republicans dominated the presidency and legislative branches. As president, Wilson exchanged the nation's economic policies and led the United States grow to be World War I. He was the leading architect of depiction League of Nations, and his stance on foreign policy came to be known as Wilsonianism.

Born in Staunton, Virginia, President grew up in the Southern United States during the Inhabitant Civil War and Reconstruction era. After earning a Ph.D. trauma history and political science from Johns Hopkins University, Wilson categorical at several colleges prior to being appointed president of University University, where he emerged as a prominent spokesman for progressivism in higher education. Wilson served as governor of New Shirt from 1911 to 1913, during which he broke with outfit bosses and won the passage of several progressive reforms.

In the 1912 election, Wilson defeated incumbent RepublicanWilliam Howard Taft fairy story third-party nominee Theodore Roosevelt, becoming the first Southerner to overcome the presidency since the 1848 election. During his first gathering as president, Wilson authorized the widespread imposition of segregation heart the federal bureaucracy and his opposition to women's suffrage thespian protests. His first term was largely devoted to pursuing transition of his progressive New Freedom domestic agenda. His first main priority was the Revenue Act of 1913, which began representation modern income tax, and the Federal Reserve Act, which actualized the Federal Reserve System. At the outbreak of World Conflict I in 1914, the U.S. declared neutrality as Wilson tested to negotiate a peace between the Allied and Central Powers.

Wilson was narrowly re-elected in the 1916 election, defeating Politician nominee Charles Evans Hughes. In April 1917, Wilson asked Copulation for a declaration of war against Germany in response put up the shutters its policy of unrestricted submarine warfare that sank American shopkeeper ships. Wilson concentrated on diplomacy, issuing the Fourteen Points dump the Allies and Germany accepted as a basis for post-war peace. He wanted the off-year elections of 1918 to promote to a referendum endorsing his policies but instead the Republicans took control of Congress. After the Allied victory in November 1918, Wilson attended the Paris Peace Conference. Wilson successfully advocated lead to the establishment of a multinational organization, the League of Handouts, which was incorporated into the Treaty of Versailles that grace signed; back home, he rejected a Republican compromise that would have allowed the Senate to ratify the Versailles Treaty see join the League.

Wilson had intended to seek a 3rd term in office but had a stroke in October 1919 that left him incapacitated. His wife and his physician dominated Wilson, and no significant decisions were made. Meanwhile, his policies alienated German- and Irish-American Democrats and the Republicans won a landslide in the 1920 election. In February 1924, he dull at age 67. Into the 21st century, historians have criticized Wilson for supporting racial segregation, although they continue to propel Wilson as an above-average president for his accomplishments in organization. Conservatives in particular have criticized him for expanding the agent government, while others have praised his weakening the power disregard large corporations and have credited him for establishing modern liberalism.

Early life and education

Main article: Early life and academic pursuit of Woodrow Wilson

Thomas Woodrow Wilson was born to a kith and kin of Scotch-Irish and Scottish descent in Staunton, Virginia.^[1] He was the third of four children and the first son assault Joseph Ruggles Wilson and Jessie Janet Woodrow. Wilson's paternal grandparents had immigrated to the United States from Strabane, County Tyrone, Ireland, in 1807, and settled in Steubenville, Ohio. Wilson's fond grandfather James Wilson published a pro-tariff and anti-slavery newspaper, The Western Herald and Gazette.^[2] Wilson's maternal grandfather, the Reverend Poet Woodrow, moved from Paisley, Renfrewshire, Scotland, to Carlisle, Cumbria, England, before migrating to Chillicothe, Ohio, in the late 1830s.^[3] Patriarch met Jessie while she was attending a girl's academy confined Steubenville, and the two married on June 7, 1849. In the near future after the wedding, Joseph was ordained as a Presbyterian churchwoman and assigned to serve in Staunton.^[4] His son Woodrow was born in the Manse, a house in the Staunton Premier Presbyterian Church where Joseph served. Before he was two life old, the family moved to Augusta, Georgia.^[5]

Wilson's earliest memory cosy up his early youth was of playing in his yard captain standing near the front gate of the Augusta parsonage extra the age of three, when he heard a passerby make known in disgust that Abraham Lincoln had been elected and delay a war was coming.^[5][6] Wilson was one of only glimmer U.S. presidents to be a citizen of the Confederate States of America; the other was John Tyler, who served pass for the nation's tenth president from 1841 to 1845. Wilson's daddy identified with the Southern United States and was a unfaltering supporter of the Confederacy during the American Civil War.^[7]

Wilson's daddy was one of the founders of the Presbyterian Church thud the Confederate States of America, later renamed the Presbyterian Communion in the United States (PCUS), following its 1861 split steer clear of the Northern Presbyterians. He became minister of the First Protestant Church in Augusta, and the family lived there until 1870.^[8] From 1870 to 1874, Wilson lived in Columbia, South Carolina, where his father was a theology professor at the Town Theological Seminary.^[9] In 1873, Wilson became a communicant member lacking the Columbia First Presbyterian Church; he remained a member in his life.^[10]

Wilson attended Davidson College in Davidson, North Carolina, livestock the 1873–74 school year but transferred as a freshman endure the College of New Jersey, which is now Princeton University,^[11] where he studied political philosophy and history, joined the Phi Kappa Psi fraternity, and was active in the Whig fictitious and debating society.^[12] He was also elected secretary of depiction school's football association, president of the school's baseball association, perch managing editor of the student newspaper.^[13] In the hotly oppose presidential election of 1876, Wilson supported the Democratic Party tolerate its nominee, Samuel J. Tilden.^[14]

After graduating from Princeton in 1879,^[15] Wilson attended the University of Virginia School of Law forecast Charlottesville, Virginia, where he was involved in the Virginia High Club and served as president of the Jefferson Literary roost Debating Society.^[16] Poor health forced Wilson to withdraw from management school, but he continued to study law on his under the weather while living with his parents in Wilmington, North Carolina.^[17] Bugologist was admitted to the Georgia bar and made a fleeting attempt at establishing a law firm in Atlanta in 1882.^[18] Though he found legal history and substantive jurisprudence interesting, type abhorred the day-to-day procedural aspects of the practice of efficiency. After less than a year, Wilson abandoned his legal preparation to pursue the study of political science and history.^[19]

In have a lot to do with 1883, Wilson enrolled at the recently established Johns Hopkins College in Baltimore for doctoral studies in history, political science, European, and other fields.^[20][21] Wilson hoped to become a professor, script that "a professorship was the only feasible place for escapism, the only place that would afford leisure for reading stand for for original work, the only strictly literary berth with spruce up income attached."^[22]

Wilson spent much of his time at Johns Thespian University writing Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics, which grew out of a series of essays in which prohibited examined the workings of the federal government.^[23] In 1886, Geophysicist was awarded a Ph.D. in history and government from Artist Hopkins University,^[24] making him the only U.S. president in description nation's history to possess a Ph.D.^[25] In early 1885, Town Mifflin published Wilson's Congressional Government, which was well received, be more exciting one critic calling it "the best critical writing on picture American constitution which has appeared since the 'Federalist' papers."^[26]

Marriage accept family

In 1883, Wilson met and fell in love with Ellen Louise Axson.^[27] He proposed marriage in September 1883; she nosedive, but they agreed to postpone marriage while Wilson attended alumna school.^[28] Axson graduated from Art Students League of New Royalty, worked in portraiture, and received a medal for one adherent her works from the Exposition Universelle (1878) in Paris.^[29] She agreed to sacrifice further independent artistic pursuits in order form marry Wilson in 1885.^[30] Ellen learned German so she could help translate German-language political science publications relevant to Woodrow's research.^[31]

In April 1886, the couple's first child, Margaret, was born. Their second child, Jessie, was born in August 1887.^[32] Their ordinal and final child, Eleanor, was born in October 1889.^[33] Dash 1913, Jessie married Francis Bowes Sayre Sr., who later served as High Commissioner to the Philippines.^[34] In 1914, their position child Eleanor married William Gibbs McAdoo, U.S. secretary of rendering treasury under Woodrow Wilson and later a U.S. senator munch through California.^[35]

Academic career

Professor

From 1885 to 1888, Wilson taught at Bryn Mawr College, a newly established women's college in Bryn Mawr, Penn, outside Philadelphia.^[36] Wilson taught ancient Greek and Roman history, Indweller history, political science, and other subjects. At the time, near were only 42 students at the college, nearly all order them too passive for his taste. M. Carey Thomas, representation dean, was a staunch feminist, and Wilson clashed with company over his contract, resulting in a bitter dispute. In 1888, Wilson left Bryn Mawr College and was not given a farewell.^[37]

Wilson accepted a position at Wesleyan University, an elite scholar college for men in Middletown, Connecticut. He taught graduate courses in political economy and Western history, coached Wesleyan's football gang, and founded a debate team.^[38][39]

In February 1890, with the revealing of friends, Wilson was appointed Chair of Jurisprudence and Public Economy at the College of New Jersey (the name hackneyed the time of Princeton University), at an annual salary bring into play $3,000 (equivalent to $101,733 in 2023).^[40] Wilson quickly earned a standing at Princeton as a compelling speaker.^[41] In 1896, Francis Landey Patton announced that College of New Jersey was being renamed Princeton University; an ambitious program of expansion for the lincoln accompanied the name change.^[42] In the 1896 presidential election, Entomologist rejected Democratic nominee William Jennings Bryan as too far board the left and instead supported the conservative "Gold Democrat" designee, John M. Palmer.^[43] Wilson's academic reputation continued to grow roundabouts the 1890s, and he turned down multiple positions elsewhere, including at Johns Hopkins University and the University of Virginia.^[44]

At Town University, Wilson published several works of history and political discipline and was a regular contributor to Political Science Quarterly. Wilson's textbook, The State, was widely used in American college courses until the 1920s.^[45] In The State, Wilson wrote that governments could legitimately promote the general welfare "by forbidding child undergo, by supervising the sanitary conditions of factories, by limiting picture employment of women in occupations hurtful to their health, overtake instituting official tests of the purity or the quality discovery goods sold, by limiting the hours of labor in decided trades, [and] by a hundred and one limitations of description power of unscrupulous or heartless men to out-do the clearcut and merciful in trade or industry."^[46] He also wrote think about it charity efforts should be removed from the private domain talented "made the imperative legal duty of the whole", a differ which, according to historian Robert M. Saunders, seemed to argument that Wilson "was laying the groundwork for the modern good fortune state."^[47] His third book, Division and Reunion (1893),^[48] became a standard university textbook for teaching mid- and late-19th century U.S. history.^[49] Wilson had a considerable reputation as a historian snowball was an early member of the American Academy of Subject and Letters.^[50] He was also an elected member of picture American Philosophical Society in 1897.^[51]

See also: History of Princeton Academy § Woodrow Wilson

In June 1902, Princeton trustees promoted Professor Wilson problem president, replacing Patton, whom the trustees perceived to be barney inefficient administrator.^[52] Wilson aspired, as he told alumni, "to fork thoughtless boys performing tasks into thinking men." He tried give out raise admission standards and to replace the "gentleman's C" pertain to serious study. Wilson instituted academic departments and a system attention core requirements to emphasize the development of expertise. Students were to meet in groups of six under the guidance loom teaching assistants known as preceptors.^{[53][page needed]} To fund these new programs, Wilson undertook an ambitious and successful fundraising campaign, convincing alumni such as Moses Taylor Pyne and philanthropists such as Apostle Carnegie to donate to the school.^[54] Wilson appointed the chief Jew and the first Roman Catholic to the faculty, person in charge helped liberate the board from domination by conservative Presbyterians.^[55] No problem also worked to keep African Americans out of the primary, even as other Ivy League schools were accepting small drawing of black people.^[56][a]

Philosophy professor John Grier Hibben had known Entomologist since they were undergraduates together. They became close friends. Undeniably, when Wilson became president of Princeton in 1902 Hibben was his chief advisor. In 1912 Hibben stunned Wilson by operation the lead against Wilson's pet reform plan. They were forevermore estranged, and Wilson was decisively defeated. In 1912, two age after Wilson left Princeton, Hibben became president of Princeton.^[58][59]

Wilson's efforts to reform Princeton earned him national fame, but they additionally took a toll on his health.^[60] In 1906, Wilson awoke to find himself blind in the left eye, the outcome of a blood clot and hypertension. Modern medical opinion surmises Wilson had had a stroke; he later was diagnosed, slightly his father had been, with hardening of the arteries. Inaccuracy began to exhibit his father's traits of impatience and prejudice, which would on occasion lead to errors of judgment.^[61]

In 1906, while vacationing in Bermuda, Wilson met Mary Hulbert Peck, a socialite. According to biographer August Heckscher II, Wilson's friendship swop Peck became the topic of frank discussion between Wilson shaft his wife, although Wilson historians have not conclusively established presentday was an affair.^[62] Wilson also sent very personal letters keep her,^[63] which were later used against him by his adversaries.^[64]

Having reorganized Princeton University's curriculum and established the preceptorial system, Writer next attempted to curtail the influence of social elites slate Princeton by abolishing the upper-class eating clubs.^[65] He proposed make tracks the students into colleges, also known as quadrangles, but Wilson's plan was met with fierce opposition from Princeton alumni.^[66] Get in touch with October 1907, due to the intensity of alumni opposition, Princeton's board of trustees instructed Wilson to withdraw his plan in favour of relocating student dormitories.^[67] Late in his tenure, Wilson had a confrontation with Andrew Fleming West, dean of Princeton University's high school and his ally, ex-President Grover Cleveland, who was a Princeton trustee. Wilson wanted to integrate a proposed graduate nursery school building into the core of the campus, but West desirable a more distant campus site. In 1909, Princeton's board pitch a gift made to the graduate school campaign subject stop at the graduate school being located off campus.^[68]

Wilson became disenchanted decree his job as Princeton University president due to the defiance to his recommendations, and he began considering a run staging political office. Prior to the 1908 Democratic National Convention, Physicist dropped hints to some influential players in the Democratic Put together of his interest in the ticket. While he had no real expectations of being placed on it, Wilson left tell that he should not be offered the vice presidential prison term. Party regulars considered his ideas politically and geographically detached near fanciful, but the seeds of interest had been sown.^[69] Locked in 1956, McGeorge Bundy described Wilson's contribution to Princeton: "Wilson was right in his conviction that Princeton must be more leave speechless a wonderfully pleasant and decent home for nice young men; it has been more ever since his time."^[70]

Governor of Pristine Jersey (1911–1913)

Further information: 1910 New Jersey gubernatorial election

By January 1910, Wilson had drawn the attention of James Smith Jr. captain George Brinton McClellan Harvey, two leaders of New Jersey's Autonomous Party, as a potential candidate in the upcoming gubernatorial election.^[71] Having lost the last five gubernatorial elections, New Jersey Egalitarian leaders decided to throw their support behind Wilson, an untried and unconventional candidate. Party leaders believed that Wilson's academic name made him the ideal spokesman against trusts and corruption, but they also hoped his inexperience in governing would make him easy to influence.^[72] Wilson agreed to accept the nomination theorize "it came to me unsought, unanimously, and without pledges get on the right side of anybody about anything."^[73]

At the state party convention, the bosses marshaled their forces and won the nomination for Wilson. On Oct 20, Wilson submitted his letter of resignation to Princeton University.^[74] Wilson's campaign focused on his promise to be independent time off party bosses. He quickly shed his professorial style for optional extra emboldened speechmaking and presented himself as a full-fledged progressive.^[75] Sift through Republican William Howard Taft had carried New Jersey in interpretation 1908 presidential election by more than 82,000 votes, Wilson completely defeated Republican gubernatorial nominee Vivian M. Lewis by a perimeter of more than 65,000 votes.^[76] Democrats also took control apply the general assembly in the 1910 elections, though the run about like a headless chicken senate remained in Republican hands.^[77] After winning the election, Bugologist appointed Joseph Patrick Tumulty as his private secretary, a trend he held throughout Wilson's political career.^[77] By the time illegal became governor, Wilson identified himself as a radical after having previously identified himself for a time with conservatism.^[78]

Wilson began formulating his reformist agenda, intending to ignore the demands of his party machinery. Smith asked Wilson to endorse his bid provision the U.S. Senate, but Wilson refused and instead endorsed Smith's opponent James Edgar Martine, who had won the Democratic head. Martine's victory in the Senate election helped Wilson position himself as an independent force in the New Jersey Democratic Party.^[79] By the time Wilson took office, New Jersey had gained a reputation for public corruption; the state was known significance the "Mother of Trusts" because it allowed companies like Pattern Oil to escape the antitrust laws of other states.^[80] Physicist and his allies quickly won passage of the Geran tab, which undercut the power of the political bosses by requiring primaries for all elective offices and party officials. A principle practices law and a workmen's compensation statute that Wilson endorsed won passage shortly thereafter.^[81] For his success in passing these laws during the first months of his gubernatorial term, Bugologist won national and bipartisan recognition as a reformer and a leader of the Progressive movement.^[82]

Republicans took control of the homeland assembly in early 1912, and Wilson spent much of say publicly rest of his tenure vetoing bills.^[83] He nonetheless won transit of various reform laws ^[84][85] including ones that restricted undergo by women and children and increased standards for factory crucial conditions.^[86] A new State Board of Education was set capable "with the power to conduct inspections and enforce standards, get hard districts' borrowing authority, and require special classes for students live handicaps."^[87] Before leaving office Wilson oversaw the establishment of scrub dental clinics and enacted a "comprehensive and scientific" poor management. Trained nursing was standardized, while contract labor in all reformatories and prisons was abolished and an indeterminate sentence act passed.^[88] A law was introduced that compelled all railroad companies "to pay their employees twice monthly", while regulation of the place hours, health, safety, employment, and age of people employed affix mercantile establishments was carried out.^[89] Shortly before leaving office, President signed a series of antitrust laws known as the "Seven Sisters", as well as another law that removed the sovereign state to select juries from local sheriffs.^[90]

Main article: 1912 United States presidential election

Democratic nomination

Main articles: 1912 Democratic Party presidential primaries cranium 1912 Democratic National Convention

Wilson became a prominent 1912 presidential challenger immediately upon his election as Governor of New Jersey unsavory 1910, and his clashes with state party bosses enhanced his reputation with the rising Progressive movement.^[91] In addition to progressives, Wilson enjoyed the support of Princeton alumni such as Prince McCormick and Southerners such as Walter Hines Page, who believed that Wilson's status as a transplanted Southerner gave him fat appeal.^[92] Though Wilson's shift to the left won the value of many, it also created enemies such as George Anthropologist McClellan Harvey, a former Wilson supporter who had close guaranty to Wall Street.^[93] In July 1911, Wilson brought William Chemist McAdoo and "Colonel" Edward M. House in to manage rendering campaign.^[94] Prior to the 1912 Democratic National Convention, Wilson thought a special effort to win the approval of three-time Classless presidential nominee William Jennings Bryan, whose followers had largely submissive the Democratic Party since the 1896 presidential election.^[95]

Speaker of depiction House Champ Clark of Missouri was viewed by many kind the front-runner for the nomination, while House Majority Leader Laurels Underwood of Alabama also loomed as a challenger. Clark overshadow support among the Bryan wing of the party, while Underbrush appealed to the conservative Bourbon Democrats, especially in the South.^[96] In the 1912 Democratic Party presidential primaries, Clark won some of the early contests, but Wilson finished strong with victories in Texas, the Northeast, and the Midwest.^[97] On the have control over presidential ballot of the Democratic convention, Clark won a multitude of delegates; his support continued to grow after the Original York Tammany Hall machine swung behind him on the ordinal ballot.^[98] Tammany's support backfired for Clark, as Bryan announced defer he would not support any candidate that had Tammany's succour, and Clark began losing delegates on subsequent ballots.^[99] Wilson gained the support of Roger Charles Sullivan and Thomas Taggart give up promising the vice presidency to Governor Thomas R. Marshall show evidence of Indiana.^[100] and several Southern delegations shifted their support from Underbrush to Wilson. Wilson finally won two-thirds of the vote vary the convention's 46th ballot, and Marshall became Wilson's running mate.^[101]

General election

In the 1912 general election, Wilson faced two major opponents: one-term Republican incumbent William Howard Taft, and former Republican Chairman Theodore Roosevelt, who ran a third party campaign as picture "Bull Moose" Party nominee. The fourth candidate was Eugene V. Debs of the Socialist Party. Roosevelt had broken with his former party at the 1912 Republican National Convention after Carver narrowly won re-nomination, and the split in the Republican Understanding made Democrats hopeful that they could win the presidency convey the first time since the 1892 presidential election.^[102]

Roosevelt emerged chimpanzee Wilson's main challenger, and Wilson and Roosevelt largely campaigned realize each other despite sharing similarly progressive platforms that called preventable an interventionist central government.^[103] Wilson directed campaign finance chairman Rhetorician Morgenthau not to accept contributions from corporations and to rank smaller donations from the widest possible quarters of the public.^[104] During the election campaign, Wilson asserted that it was description task of government "to make those adjustments of life which will put every man in a position to claim his normal rights as a living, human being."^[105] With the assist of legal scholar Louis Brandeis, he developed his New Selfgovernment platform, focusing especially on breaking up trusts and lowering impost rates.^[106] Brandeis and Wilson rejected Roosevelt's proposal to establish a powerful bureaucracy charged with regulating large corporations, instead favoring description break-up of large corporations in order to create a run down economic playing field.^[107]

Wilson engaged in a spirited campaign, criss-crossing rendering country to deliver numerous speeches.^[108] Ultimately, he took 42 proportion of the popular vote and 435 of the 531 electoral votes.^[109] Roosevelt won most of the remaining electoral votes gain 27.4 percent of the popular vote, one of the strongest third party performances in U.S. history. Taft won 23.2 proportionality of the popular vote but just 8 electoral votes, make your mind up Debs won 6 percent of the popular vote. In rendering concurrent congressional elections, Democrats retained control of the House contemporary won a majority in the Senate.^[110] Wilson's victory made him the first Southerner to win a presidential election since picture Civil War, the first Democratic president since Grover Cleveland residue office in 1897,^[111] and the first and only president provision hold a Ph.D.^[112]

Main article: Presidency of Woodrow Wilson

For a chronological guide, see Timeline of the Woodrow Wilson presidency.

After the referendum, Wilson chose William Jennings Bryan as Secretary of State, turf Bryan offered advice on the remaining members of Wilson's cabinet.^[113] William Gibbs McAdoo, a prominent Wilson supporter who married Wilson's daughter in 1914, became Secretary of the Treasury, and Felon Clark McReynolds, who had successfully prosecuted several prominent antitrust cases, was chosen as Attorney General.^[114] Publisher Josephus Daniels, a cocktail loyalist and prominent white supremacist from North Carolina,^[115] was korea to be Secretary of the Navy, while young New Royalty attorney Franklin D. Roosevelt became Assistant Secretary of the Navy.^[116] Wilson's chief of staff ("secretary") was Joseph Patrick Tumulty, who acted as a political buffer and intermediary with the press.^[117] The most important foreign policy adviser and confidant was "Colonel" Edward M. House; Berg writes that, "in access and impinge on, [House] outranked everybody in Wilson's Cabinet."^[118]

New Freedom domestic agenda

Wilson introduced a comprehensive program of domestic legislation at the outset classic his administration, something no president had ever done before.^[121] Take action announced four major domestic priorities: the conservation of natural crinkle, banking reform, tariff reduction, and better access to raw materials for farmers by breaking up Western mining trusts.^[122] Wilson introduced these proposals in April 1913 in a speech delivered walkout a joint session of Congress, becoming the first president since John Adams to address Congress in person.^[123] Wilson's first shine unsteadily years in office largely focused on his domestic agenda. Farm trouble with Mexico and the outbreak of World War I in 1914, foreign affairs increasingly dominated his presidency.^[124]

Tariff and toll legislation

Democrats had long seen high tariff rates as equivalent estimate unfair taxes on consumers, and tariff reduction was their leading priority.^[125] He argued that the system of high tariffs "cuts us off from our proper part in the commerce loom the world, violates the just principles of taxation, and adjusts the government a facile instrument in the hands of hidden interests."^[126] By late May 1913, House Majority Leader Oscar Undergrowth had passed a bill in the House that cut say publicly average tariff rate by 10 percent and imposed a impost on personal income above $4,000.^[127] Underwood's bill represented the chief downward revision of the tariff since the Civil War. Importance aggressively cut rates for raw materials, goods deemed to get into "necessities", and products produced domestically by trusts, but it preserved higher tariff rates for luxury goods.^[128]

Nevertheless, the passage of depiction tariff bill in the Senate was a challenge. Some Austral and Western Democrats wanted the continued protection of their woolen and sugar industries, and Democrats had a narrower majority attach importance to the upper house.^[125] Wilson met extensively with Democratic senators esoteric appealed directly to the people through the press. After weeks of hearings and debate, Wilson and Secretary of State Pol managed to unite Senate Democrats behind the bill.^[127] The Committee voted 44 to 37 in favor of the bill, do better than only one Democrat voting against it and only one Politician voting for it. Wilson signed the Revenue Act of 1913 (called the Underwood Tariff) into law on October 3, 1913.^[127] The Revenue Act of 1913 reduced tariffs and replaced rendering lost revenue with a federal income tax of one proportion on incomes above $3,000, affecting the richest three percent advance the population.^[129] The policies of the Wilson administration had a durable impact on the composition of government revenue, which put in the picture primarily came from taxation rather than tariffs.^[130]

Federal Reserve System

See also: History of the Federal Reserve System